Andreev encyclopædia An encyclopædia on Daniil Andreev with vast bibliography Mikhail Belgorodskiy, the author-compiler Christianity. The Bible. The Byzantine and Roman Catholic metacultures. [5265–12649]

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Christianity, the Bible, the Byzantine metaculturethe Roman Catholic metaculture, Italy
Spain, Poland and other Catholic states

XII. Christian metacultures. Heavenly Jerusalem       XII.1. Christianity.   XII.1.1. The History of Christianity. Church Father ecumenical council Isaak the Syrian XII.1.1.2 John Chrysostom XII.1.1.1 Nicholas, Saint   XII.1.2. Christian teology. patristics     Clement of Alexandria Origen Basil the Great XII.1.2.1 Augustine, Saint. XII.1.2.2 John of Damascus XII.1.2.3 Pdeudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Dionysian corpus of writings       XII.2. The Bible. XII.2.1. The Bible and science. XII.2.2. The New Testament. Dionysius the Areopagite Gospel James, Saint Apostle Jesus Christ John the Apostle XII.2.4.2 John the Baptist Joseph (the Virgin Mary’s husband) Judas Iscariot XII.2.4.4 Mary, Blessed Virgin XII.2.4.1 Mary Magdalene XII.2.4.3 Paul the Apostle Peter the Apostle Pilate P. Thomas, Saint XIII. The Byzantine metaculture. Paradise, the zatomis

XIII.1. Byzantium. Byzantines       XIII.2. History of Byzantium. Comnenus family Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus Justinian I       XIII.3. Byzantine Orthodoxy.       XIII.4. Byzantine culture. axamit       XIII.5. Byzantine philosophy.       XIII.6. Byzantine art.       XIII.7. Byzantine literature. Nicetas Choniates Psellus M.       XIII.8. Greece. Athens     ancient Athens Greeks       XIII.9. Rumania. Moroianu D. Rimanians       XIII.10. Moldova.

XIV. The Roman Catholic metaculture. the Demiurge of the Roman Catholic metaculture Eden, the zatomis       XIV.1. Catholicism Agnes, Saint Francis of Assisi, Saint. XIV.1.1 John XXIII, pope. XIV.1.3 John of the Cross, Saint John Paul II, pope Leo XIII, pope Loyola I. XIV.1.2 pope papacy Teresa of Jesus, Saint Teresa the Little, Saint Vatican City       XIV.2. Inquisition. the demon of papacy Torquemada T.       XIV.3. Italy. Sicily   XIV.3.1. Italian culture Casanova G.G. Galileo Machiavelli N.

XIV.3.2. History of Italy. Conrad of Monferrat Monferrat (margravate) Mussolini B.A.A.   XIV.3.3. Italian philosophy. Campanella T. XIV.3.3.1   XIV.3.4. Italian art. Botticelli S. Columbine Corregio Harlequin Leonardo da Vinci XIV.3.4.1 Michelangelo XIV.3.4.2 Pierrot Raphael XIV.3.4.3 Tintoretto Titian Vivaldi A.   XIV.3.5. Italian literature. Ariosto L. Boccaccio G. Eco U. XIV.3.5.2 Laura Petrarch XIV.3.5.1 Tasso T.

XIV.4. Spain.   XIV.4.1. Spanish culture. Columbus Ch.   XIV.4.2. History of Spain. Alba F.A. Pizarro F.   XIV.4.3. Spanish philosophy. Ortega y Gasset J.   XIV.4.4. Spanish art. Gaudi A. Goya F.J. XIV.4.4.1 Dali S. XIV.4.4.2 Murillo B.E.   XIV.4.5. Spanish literature. Calderon P. XIV.4.5.2 Garsia Lorca F. XIV.4.5.3 Cervantes M. XIV.4.5.1       XIV.5. Portugal.       XIV.6. Poland. Anders W. Chopin F.F. Copernicus N. XIV.6.1 Kajtoch W., literary criticist Konopnicka M. Lem S. Mickiewicz A.B. Mniszek Yu. (Jerzy) Polish insurrection 1863–1864 Sigismund III Vasa Walicki A. Waliszewski K. the witzraor of Poland Wladyslaw IV Vasa Zborowski A. Zólkiewski S.

XIV.7. Hungary. Liszt F. XIV.7.1       XIV.8. Czechoslovakia. Hus, Yan       XIV.9. Ireland. Irishmen Moore T. Swift J. Yeats W.B.       XIV.10. Croatia. Croat       XIV.11. The Baltic states.   XIV.11.1. Latvia.   XIV.11.2. Lithuania. Chyurlionis M.K. XIV.11.1 Sapieha L.   XIV.11.3. Estonia. Maa-Emu (goddess)       XIV.12. Latin America. Argentina Borges J.L. Guatemala Honduras

XII. Christian metacultures

5265–5482. Russian sources.

5483. vacant

Bultmann R. Primitive Christianity in Its Contemporary Setting. – London, 1964. # Non-Christian author or a representative of liberal theology.

Church Father (in Russian отец церкви),

ecumenical council (по-англ. вселенский собор; synonym: general council), a meeting of bishops of the whole Christian church to consider and rule on questions of doctrine, administration, discipline, and other matters. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, a council is not ecumenical unless it has been called by the pope, and its decrees are not binding until they have been promulgated by the pope. Decrees so promulgated have the highest authority in the Roman Catholic Church. Whereas the Eastern Orthodox churches recognize only the first seven councils as ecumenical, the Roman Catholic Church adds an eighth before the Schism of 1054, which permanently divided Eastern and Western Christianity. It is the fourth Council of Constantinople (869–870), which excommunicated Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople. The Roman Catholic Church also considers 13 later councils as ecumenical. In the early church the name council was applied to any church meeting and even to buildings where services were held. During the 3rd century, however, the word council came to have the special sense of meetings of bishops, though not only bishops were present, for the administration of the church. The earliest known provincial councils were held in the 2nd century, and by the year 300 the meetings of bishops in the provinces had become the habitual mode of church government. After Constantine I proclaimed toleration for the Christians (313) and persecution ended, it was possible for bishops from many provinces to convene in a general council. The idea of an ecumenical council and its special authority, however, was slow to develop. The term ecumenical council was first used by the historian Eusebius (died c. 340) in his life of Constantine to describe the Council of Nicaea (325), which was summoned by Constantine. Such imperially summoned councils and ordinary provincial councils differed sharply, but the distinction was more of size and practice than of defined authority. The decisions of such a council were obviously more binding than were those of earlier provincial councils because the emperor made them effective in secular law. It was not at first evident, however, that there might be a peculiar sacredness about the decisions of such a council because all councils were believed to be under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. After the Council of Nicaea, the idea developed that its decisions could not be reformed, and Athanasius argued that Nicaea was an especially sacred council because it was attended by bishops from all parts of the church. The councils of Ephesus (431) and of Chalcedon (451) declared that the decisions of Nicaea were unalterable. But it was assumed, rather than formally stated, that ecumenical councils, once recognized to be such, could not err. In practice, the idea of irreformable canons was often confined to matters of faith. In matters of discipline later councils continued to alter the decisions of earlier ecumenical councils, for changing circumstances often made the old canons irrelevant or unenforceable. (Used source: Encyclopædia Britannica).

Nicholas, Saint (in Rissian Николай Чудотворец; also called Nicholas of Bari or Nicholas of Myra; supposedly 260–343), one of the most popular minor saints commemorated in the Eastern and Western churches and now traditionally associated with the festival of Christmas. Feast day December 6. Nicholas’s existence is not attested by any historical document, so nothing certain is known of his life except that he was probably bishop of Myra {Lycia, Asia Minor, near modern Kale (Demre), Turkey} in the 4th century. According to tradition, he was born in the ancient Lycian seaport city of Patara, and, when young, traveled to Palestine and Egypt. He became bishop of Myra soon after returning to Lycia. He was imprisoned during the persecution of Christians by the Roman emperor Diocletian but was released under the rule of Emperor Constantine the Great and attended the first Council (325) of Nicaea. He was buried in his church at Myra, and by the 6th century his shrine there had become well-known. In 1087 Italian sailors or merchants stole his alleged remains from Myra and took them to Bari, Italy; this removal greatly increased the saint’s popularity in Europe, and Bari became one of the most crowded of all pilgrimage centres. Nicholas’s relics remain enshrined in the 11th-century basilica of San Nicola at Bari. Nicholas’s reputation for generosity and kindness gave rise to legends of miracles he performed for the poor and unhappy. He was reputed to have given marriage dowries of gold to three girls whom poverty would otherwise have forced into lives of prostitution and to have restored to life three children who had been chopped up by a butcher and put in a tub of brine. In the Middle Ages, devotion to Nicholas extended to all parts of Europe. He became the patron saint of Russia and Greece; of charitable fraternities and guilds; of children, sailors, unmarried girls, merchants, and pawnbrokers; and of such cities as Fribourg, in Switzerland, and Moscow. Thousands of European churches were dedicated to him, one, built by the Roman emperor Justinian I at Constantinople (now Istanbul), as early as the 6th century. Nicholas’s miracles were a favourite subject for medieval artists and liturgical plays, and his traditional feast day was the occasion for the ceremonies of the Boy Bishop, a widespread European custom in which a boy was elected bishop and reigned until Holy Innocents’ Day (December 28). After the Reformation, devotion to Nicholas disappeared in all the Protestant countries of Europe except Holland, where his legend persisted as Sinterklaas (a Dutch variant of the name Saint Nicholas). Dutch colonists took this tradition with them to New Amsterdam (now New York City) in the American colonies in the 17th century. Sinterklaas was adopted by the country’s English-speaking majority under the name Santa Claus, and his legend of a kindly old man was united with old Nordic folktales of a magician who punished naughty children and rewarded good children with presents. The resulting image of Santa Claus in the United States crystallized in the 19th century, and he has ever since remained the patron of the gift-giving festival of Christmas. Under various guises Saint Nicholas was transformed into a similar benevolent gift-giving figure in The Netherlands, Belgium, and other northern European countries. In the United Kingdom, Santa Claus is known as Father Christmas. In many countries children receive gifts on December 6, Saint Nicholas Day. (Used source: Encyclopædia Britannica).

(c. 347 – 407 AD), Saint.

(d. c. 700), Saint.

Twentieth Century Theology in the Making. V. 1. Themes of Biblical Theology / Ed. J. Pelikan. – London, 1969.

Best S. The Temptation and the Passion. – Cambridge, 1965.

Morison F. Who Moved the Stone? – London, 1969.

Clement of Alexandria (in Rissian Климент Александрийский; Latin name: Titus Flavius Clemens, c. 150 – between 211 and 215), Saint, Christian Apologist, missionary theologian to the Hellenistic (Greek cultural) world, and second known leader and teacher of the catechetical school of Alexandria. The most important of his surviving works is a trilogy comprising the “Protreptikos” (“Exhortation”), the “Paidagõgos” (“The Instructor”), and the “Strõmateis” (“Miscellanies”).

Origen (in Rissian Ориген Александрийский; Latin in full: Oregenes Adamantius; c. 185 – 254), the most important theologian and biblical scholar of the early Greek church. His greatest work is the “Hexapla”, which is a synopsis of six versions of the Old Testament.

(c. 329 – 379 AD), Saint.

(675–749), Saint.

Wilson M. G. Scholars of Byzantium. – London: Duckworth, 1983. – VII, 283 p.

(in Russian Эко, Умберто; b. 1932), Italian literary critic, novelist, and semiotician (student of signs and symbols). A presumptive herald. He was born in Alessandria, Italy. After receiving a Ph.D. from the University of Turin (1954), Eco worked as a cultural editor for Italian Radio-Television and also lectured at the University of Turin (1956–64). He then taught in Florence and Milan and finally, in 1971, assumed a professorial post at the University of Bologna. His initial studies and researches were in aesthetics, his principal work in this area being “The Open Work” (1962; rev. ed. 1972, 1976), which suggests that in much modern music, Symbolist verse, and literature of controlled disorder (Franz Kafka, James Joyce) the messages are fundamentally ambiguous and invite the audience to participate more actively in the interpretive and creative process. From this work he went on to explore other areas of communication and semiotics in such volumes as “A Theory of Semiotics” (1976) and “Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language” (1984), both written in English. Many of his prolific writings in criticism, history, and communication have been translated into various foreign languages. His fantasy novel “The Name of the Rose” (1981) – in story, a murder mystery set in a 14th-century Italian monastery but, in essence, a questioning of “truth” from theological, philosophical, scholarly, and historical perspectives – became an international best-seller. A film version, directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud, appeared in 1986. (Used source: Encyclopædia Britannica).

(in Russian Дали, Сальвадор; in full: Salvador Felipe Jacinto Dali Y Domenech; 1904–1989), Spanish Surrealist painter and printmaker, influential for his explorations of subconscious imagery. A presumptive herald. He was born in Figueras, Spain. As an art student in Madrid and Barcelona, Dali assimilated a vast number of artistic styles and displayed unusual technical facility as a painter. It was not until the late 1920s, however, that two events brought about the development of his mature artistic style: his discovery of Sigmund Freud’s writings on the erotic significance of subconscious imagery, and his affiliation with the Paris Surrealists, a group of artists and writers who sought to establish the “greater reality” of man’s subconscious over his reason. To bring up images from his subconscious mind, Dali began to induce hallucinatory states in himself by a process he described as “paranoiac critical.” Once Dali hit on this method, his painting style matured with extraordinary rapidity, and from 1929 to 1937 he produced the paintings which made him the world’s best-known Surrealist artist. He depicted a dream world in which commonplace objects are juxtaposed, deformed, or otherwise metamorphosed in a bizarre and irrational fashion. Dali portrayed these objects in meticulous, almost painfully realistic detail and usually placed them within bleak, sunlit landscapes that were reminiscent of his Catalonian homeland. Perhaps the most famous of these enigmatic images is “The Persistence of Memory” (1931), in which limp, melting watches rest in an eerily calm landscape. With the Spanish director Luis Buñuel, Dali also made two Surrealistic films – “An Andalusian Dog” (1928) and “The Golden Age” (1930) – that are similarly filled with grotesque but highly suggestive images. In the late 1930s Dali switched to painting in a more academic style under the influence of the Renaissance painter Raphael, and as a consequence he was expelled from the Surrealist movement. Thereafter he spent much of his time designing theatre sets, interiors of fashionable shops, and jewelry, as well as exhibiting his genius for flamboyant self-promotional stunts in the United States, where he lived from 1940 to 1955. In the period from 1950 to 1970 Dali painted many works with religious themes, though he continued to explore erotic subjects, to represent childhood memories, and to use themes centring on his wife, Gala. Notwithstanding their technical accomplishments, these later paintings are not as highly regarded as the artist’s earlier works. The most interesting and revealing of Dali’s books is “The Secret Life of Salvador Dali” (1942–1944). Died in Figueras. (Used source: Encyclopædia Britannica).

(in Russian Коперник, Николай; in Polish: Mikolaj Kopernik; 1473–1543), Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets have the Sun as the fixed point to which their motions are to be referred; that the Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow, long-term changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. This representation of the heavens is usually called the heliocentric, or “Sun-centred,” system – derived from the Greek “helios”, meaning “Sun.” Copernicus's theory had important consequences for later thinkers of the scientific revolution, including such major figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. Copernicus probably hit upon his main idea sometime between 1508 and 1514, and during those years he wrote a manuscript usually called “Little Commentary”. However, the book that contains the final version of his theory, “Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs” (“De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi”), did not appear in print until 1543, the year of his death.

11920–11949. Russian sources.

11950. Copernicus N. On the Revolutions / Ed. and trans. by Edward Rosen. – 1978, reissued 1992. # Copernicus’s complete works in English translation are collected here.

11951. Copernicus N. Minor Works / Ed. and trans. by Edward Rosen and Erna Hilfstein. – 1985, reissued 1992.

The Copernican Achievement / Ed. Robert S. Westman. – 1975. # The book is recommended for advanced study.

11957. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler. – 1993. # Useful for scholarly and general readers.

Studia Copernicana. – 1970– . # This series offers a rich collection of scholarly studies on aspects of Copernicus’ life, work, and later reception.

Armitage, Angus. Copernicus: Founder of Modern Astronomy. – 1938, reissued 1990. # A biography for the general reader.

Blumenberg, Hans. The Genesis of the Copernican World. – 1987; originally published in German, 1975. # A challenging interpretation.

Gingerich, Owen. The Great Copernicus Chase and Other Adventures in Astronomical History. – 1992. # Useful for scholarly and general readers.

11967. Hallyn, Fernand. The Poetic Structure of the World: Copernicus and Kepler. – 1990; originally published in French, 1987. # A challenging interpretation.

11970. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. – 1957, reissued 1985. # A general overview of Copernicus' ideas and their impact.

11970a). Westman, Robert S. Two Cultures or One?: A Second Look at Kuhn’s “The Copernican Revolution” // Isis, 85: 79–115. – March 1994/ # Provides a critical reevaluation with a more recent bibliography.

Rosen, Edward. Copernicus and the Scientific Revolution. – 1984. # A biography for the general reader.

Swerdlow N.M.; Neugebauer O. Mathematical Astronomy in Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus. Vol. 1. – 1984. # The more scholarly biography.

(in Russian Лист, Ференц; in Hungarian: Ferenc Liszt; 1811–1886), Hungarian piano virtuoso and composer. Among his many notable compositions are his 12 symphonic poems, two (completed) piano concerti, several sacred choral works, and a great variety of solo piano pieces.

12050–12074. Russian sources.

12075. vacant

Franz Liszt: The Man and His Music / Ed. Alan Walker. – 1970.

Burger, Ernst. Franz Liszt: A Chronicle of His Life in Pictures and Documents. – 1989.

Hamburger, Klára. Liszt. – 1987.

Perényi, Eleanor. Liszt: The Artist as Romantic Hero. – 1974.

Sitwell, Sacheverell. Liszt / Rev. ed. – 1955; reissued 1988.

Taylor, Ronald. Franz Liszt: The Man and the Musician. – 1986.

Walker, Alan. Franz Liszt. – 1983.